During the war the British Museum was seriously damaged by bombs, though fortunately the precious relics had been moved to safety. Since the end of the fighting, much reconstruction and redistribution of exhibits has taken place. This has now advanced to such a stage that the arrangements show some signs of permanence and the opportunity arises to describe the pieces on display in various rooms.
It is, therefore, proposed to publish a number of articles which may act as a brief guide to the Biblical exhibits in the museum. It will be natural to start with the Roman Gallery, which lies immediately to the left of the main entrance from Great Russell Street. This includes mainly portrait sculptures which are arranged in chronological order on the north side of the gallery. The busts of the earlier personages are at the western end ; and it is, therefore, desirable to start the tour of the room from the north-west corner and move in the reverse direction towards the entrance hall.
Many of the exhibits are imperial portraits from the period shortly before the birth of Jesus to the middle of the third century A.D. The identification of the portraits is based mainly on the evidence of coins, either directly, or by comparison with other busts, previously identified, and there is no uncertainty about the recognition of the more distinctive portraits. Where portraits are of infrequent occurrence there is more difficulty, and this is sometimes increased by the tendency of the artists to introduce a family type and make all members of the family approach it.
Caesar Augustus
The first notable portrait is that of Caesar Augustus, the second one from the end. of him it is written :
“And it came to pass in those days that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be taxed.”1
This decree led to the fulfilment of prophecy in that it caused Joseph and Mary to leave Nazareth and go to Bethlehem, where Jesus was born, as said the prophet, “But thou Bethlehem Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel.” 2
The portrait, which was broken off from a marble statue, is that of Augustus in middle age, the head slightly inclined to the right. The end of the nose is broken off.
Augustus was born in 63 B.C. and died in A.D. 14. He became Emperor in 29 B.C. and assumed the title of Augustus on the petition of the Senate in 27 B.C.
At one time the first bust in the row was regarded as representing Augustus at a more advanced stage in life than in his u3ual portraits, but this identification is not now accepted, the head being described as that of an unknown Roman.
The third figure is a beautiful portrait, the dressing of the hair of which shows it to have belonged to the time of Augustus. The most probable identification is with Antonia, the daughter of Mark Antony.
Claudius
Another Emperor who unwittingly helped to further the Divine purpose was Claudius Caesar. A parenthesis in Acts 18 : 2 informs us that “Claudius had commanded all Jews to depart from Rome.” Amongst those who were compelled to leave the city because of this edict were Aquila and Priscilla, the tent makers. They went to Corinth and there the apostle Paul lodged with them and shared their work, both temporal and spiritual. Later they went with the apostle to Ephesus and did great service to the Gospel by making perfect the knowledge of the eloquent Apollos. Thus their expulsion from Rome by Claudius produced much fruit in Corinth and Ephesus. During the reign of Claudius, too, a great dearth affected the Roman world, as predicted by Agabus. 3
Next but one to the bust of Antonia is that of Claudius. He was specially noted for the uncouth nature of his deportment and gestures but it is said that, when quiescent, he was not wanting in authority and dignity. He was born in 10 B.C. and died, it was supposed by poison in A.D. 54. He became Emperor in A.D. 41.
Vespasian and Titus
Claudius is the last Caesar to be mentioned by name in the Scriptures but the connection of the Jews with Rome continued. The time was quickly approaching for the fulfilment of the prophecy of Jesus concerning his people and their capital city. Concerning the former he said on Mount olivet, “They shall fall by the edge of the sword and be led away captive unto all nations” 4; as regards the latter “Jerusalem shall be trodden down of the Gentiles” 4; and about the Jewish temple he said, “There shall not be left one stone upon another that shall not be thrown down.” 5
The instruments for the accomplishment of his predictions were being prepared as he spoke, and when the time came they were ready. Shortly before A.D. 70 the Jews revolted against their Roman masters and the Roman legions moved in to quell the rebellion. Their leader was Vespasian, whose marble bust stands next but one to that of Claudius. The head is larger than life-size and is very coarsely executed. The nose and right ear are broken away. Vespasian was born in A.D. 9 and was said to be a man of rough and shrewd character, a good commander and administrator. Before he could complete the work of pacifying Judea, the reigning Emperor, Vitellius, was murdered by the soldiers. Vespasian was called to the throne in A.D. 69. He reigned until A.D. 79.
When Vespasian left his forces to assume the position of Emperor, the control of the army was vested in his son Titus, then 28 years old. Next to the bust of Vespasian is that of Titus, a good specimen from Utica in North Africa. He is described as “a beloved prince,” but is best known to fame because he was the chief architect of the fulfilment of the word of Jesus. He completed the defeat of the Jews and took Jerusalem in A.D. 70 after one of the most dreadful, if not the most dreadful, sieges in history.
The temple was burnt to the ground and leading Jews followed in his triumphal procession in Rome. The Jews were sold as slaves throughout the Roman world and the olivet prophecy was completely accomplished. It is said that Titus wished to spare the temple and gave orders to this effect, but a Roman soldier threw a lighted torch among the woodwork of the edifice and soon it was all ablaze. Titus became Emperor in A.D. 79 but reigned for only two years.
The White Horse
Those who are familiar with the exposition of the Book of Revelation by Dr. J. Thomas6 will be aware that he relates the opening of the seals as described in the 6th chapter to the developments in the rulership of the Roman Empire which took place between the end of the first century and the early part of the fourth century A.D. The exhibits in the gallery illustrate his theme very forcibly.
The opening of the first seal revealed “a white horse and he that sat on him had a bow and a crown was given unto him and he went forth conquering and to conquer.” This manifestation is related to the peaceful condition of the Roman Empire between approximately A.D. 96 and A.D. 180. Concerning this time the historian Gibbon writes,
“If a man were called upon to fix a period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of Domitian to the accession of Commodus.” (i.e. A.D. 96-180).
During this period of peace the Christians, whom Gibbon describes as “spiritual conquerors,” made great progress with the proclamation of their message. By pacific methods, symbolised by the bow without arrows, they “went forth conquering and to conquer” and prepared the way for the later collapse of Paganism in the Empire.
Among the Emperors who reigned during this prosperous age the following are represented in the Gallery :
Trajan, soldier, statesman and administrator, is shown in the sixth figure after that of Titus. He was born in A.D. 53, became Emperor in A.D. 98 and died in Cilicia in A.D. 117. The exhibit is a male portrait head, beardless. The hair is slightly indicated in straight locks over the head and down the neck. The nose, chin, and left ear are broken. Next to this bust is that of a lady named Claudia olympias who was probably the daughter of Tiberius Caesar (42 B.C.—A.D.37), in the fifteenth year of whose reign John the Baptist commenced his ministry. 8
Next follows the representation of the head of Hadrian, who was born in A.D. 76 and was Emperor from A.D. 117-138. He is clad in a cuirass over which his military cloak is fastened by a circular brooch on the right shoulder. He was a skilled administrator, and indefatigable traveller and a scholarly patron of the arts. Among his activities was the construction of the great wall in Northumbria to keep out the Scots. A few steps further on is a statue of Hadrian dressed in civil costume.
Next but one to the bust of Hadrian is that of Antoninus, who was called Pius because of his devotion to the memory of Hadrian. He was born in A.D. 86 and was Emperor from A.D. 138-161. He has one of the best testimonials of all Roman emperors, given to him by Mericale, “The consent of antiquity plainly declares that Antoninus was the first and, saving his colleague and successor Aurelius, the only Roman emperor who devoted himself to the task of government with a single view to the happiness of his people.”
The bust on the other side of the statue of Hadrian is that of Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Stoic9 philosopher, author of the famous “Meditations.” He was born in A.D. 121 and reigned from A.D. 161 to 180. Although he was a beneficent ruler, he was a persecutor of heretics, and therefore of the Christians. The next exhibit is that of the marble head of Faustina the younger (A.D. 130-175), who was daughter of Antoninus Pius and wife of Marcus Aurelius. Next is the representation of Lucius Verus (A.D. 130-169) who was Emperor with Marcus Aurelius from A.D. 161 to 169.
The Red Horse
The death of Marcus Aurelius and the accession of Commodus, his son, in A.D. 180 led to a great change in the state of the Empire. This is symbolised in the words of the Book of Revelation relating to the opening of the second seal, “And there went out another horse that was red : and power was given to him that sat thereon to take peace from the earth, and that they should kill one another : and there was given unto him a great sword.” 10
The history of the period from A.D. 180-211 is well represented by the symbol. Commodus was a cruel and suspicious ruler. He was poisoned and strangled at the instigation of one of his concubines. The Praetorian guards, the soldiers stationed in Rome, took charge. They elected Pertinax to succeed Commodus but after 68 days assassinated him. Julian then bought the Imperial crown from the soldiers for about 13,000,000, but after 66 days he was beheaded. Thereafter there was civil war for the throne between the generals until Septimius Severus established order for a short time. He died at York in A.D. 211.
Three of the emperors of the time are represented in the gallery. These are Commodus, next but one in order to Faustina. He was born in A.D. 161, was colleague with his father Aurelius from A.D. 176 and sole emperor from A.D. 180 to 192; five further along, Pertinax (A.D. 126-193); and, next but one, Septimius Severus (A.D. 146-211). Following is a statue of Severus.
The Black Horse
When the third seal was opened there appeared a black horse. “He that sat on him had a pair of balances in his hand and a voice said, ‘A measure of wheat for a penny and three measures of barley for a penny’.”11 The excesses of the period between Commodus and Septimus Severus and the extravagance of successive Emperors, especially in the giving of huge monetary gifts to the soldiers in order to gain the throne, led to oppressive taxation, including duties on all kinds of commodities in daily use. This was symbolised by the rider’s balances and the words of the voice. Dr. Young records that barley went up to over seven times the price at which it stood in Athens in the days of Socrates. A paraphrase of the voice’s declaration applicable to more modern times would be, “A shilling for a penny loaf, and a shilling for three dough cakes.”
Caracalla, son of Septimius Severus, was born in A.D. 188 and was a colleague in the Empire with his father and his brother, Geta. When his father died in A.D. 211 he murdered his brother and so became sole Emperor. He died in A.D. 217. The period lasted until A.D. 235 when Alexander Severus was murdered. At his accession to the throne in A.D. 222 he had reduced taxes to one-thirtieth part of what they had previously been.
Portrait sculptures of the period on display are two. The first, next to the two of Septimius Severus, is that of Caracalla. The head is turned slightly to its right. It has a short curly beard and moustache and short close curls. The neck is crooked towards the left shoulder. Aurelius Victor says that Caracalla had been induced by flatterers to believe that when he frowned and turned his head he resembled Alexander the Great. Next is the bust of Julia Mamaea (A.D. 192-235), the mother of Alexander Severus, for whom she acted as regent.
The Southern Side of the Gallery
There are not many exhibits of Biblical interest on the southern side of the gallery but attention might be drawn to statues of Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian, the latter in military costume.
The recent discovery of a temple of Mithras in the City of London makes of interest the Mithraic Group near the south-west corner of the room. In this the god Mithras is kneeling on a prostrate bull, drawing back its head with his left hand and stabbing it behind the shoulder with a short sword. A dog and a snake are springing up to drink the blood of the victim.
Mithras was the Persian solar deity whose worship became popular just before the time of Jesus and was one of the early rivals of Christianity. The sacrificial bull is symbolic of animal life and reproductive power.
References
- Luke 2 : 1.
- Micah 5 : 2.
- Acts 11: 28.
- Luke 21 : 24.
- Matt. 24 : 2
- Eureka Vol. 1.
- Rev. 6 : 2.
- Luke 3 : 1
- The Stoics believed that man should be unmoved by joy or grief and submit without complaint to the unavoidable necessity by which all things are governed. Some of them ridiculed the Apostle Paul at Athens (see Acts 17 : 18).
- Rev. 6 : 4.
- Rev. 6 : 5, 6.
Jacob’s Prophecy in Gen 49 and Other Discussion Questions